Bible Interpretation: Literal, Figurative, and Historical Readings

Overview

Interpretation (hermeneutics) asks a single question: What did the biblical authors intend to communicate to their original audience? Modern readers bring three complementary lenses to that question—literal, figurative, and historical. Each lens highlights a different dimension of meaning, and together they form a balanced approach that respects the text’s genre, cultural setting, and theological purpose.

Foundational Concepts

Hermeneutics and Exegesis

Hermeneutics is the theory of interpretation; exegesis is the practice of drawing out the meaning of a passage. Both terms presuppose that Scripture is a human‑written document inspired by God, and that it must be read in its original linguistic and cultural context before any application is made.

Four Classical Principles (MacArthur Study Bible)

The MacArthur Study Bible identifies four guiding principles: literal, historical, grammatical, and synthesis. The literal principle holds that Scripture should be understood in its normal, natural sense unless the author signals a figure of speech.^[1]

The Literal Sense

Definition

The literal sense (also called the grammatical or verbal sense) is “that which has been expressed directly by the inspired human authors”—the plain meaning of the words as they would have been understood by the original hearers.^[3]

How It Works

• Identify the genre. Narrative, law, prophecy, poetry, epistle, and apocalyptic literature each have distinct conventions.
• Observe grammar and syntax. Hebrew and Greek have idioms that differ from modern English.
• Check the immediate context. A word’s meaning is often clarified by surrounding verses.

Illustrative Example

Genesis 1:1 – “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” The literal sense tells us that the text affirms God as the ultimate cause of the cosmos. No metaphorical language is intended here; the historical audience would have understood this as a straightforward statement of origin.

The Figurative (Spiritual) Sense

Definition

The spiritual sense encompasses the deeper, non‑literal meanings that the text conveys—symbolic, typological, or allegorical messages that point beyond the immediate words.^[3] The early Church Fathers spoke of the “senses of Scripture” as a hierarchy: literal first, then spiritual.

Common Figurative Devices

• Metaphor and simile. E.g., Psalm 23:1, “The LORD is my shepherd,” portrays God’s care through the image of a shepherd.
• Typology. Persons or events prefigure later fulfillment (e.g., the Passover lamb as a type of Christ).
• Symbolic numbers. The number 7 often signals completeness.
• Apocalyptic imagery. Visions in Daniel and Revelation use vivid symbols to convey theological truths.

Illustrative Example

John 2:1‑11 records Jesus turning water into wine at Cana. Historically the miracle demonstrates Jesus’ authority, but figuratively it points to the new covenant (wine as the blood of the covenant) and the transformation of the old (water) into the new (wine). The apostolic approach in Understanding God’s Word emphasizes recognizing such symbolic layers while grounding them in the literal event.^[4]

The Historical Reading

Why History Matters

Every biblical book emerged from a specific time, place, and community. Understanding that backdrop prevents anachronistic readings and helps clarify idioms, legal codes, and cultural practices. The MacArthur Study Bible stresses the need to “bridge the history gap” by consulting atlases, dictionaries, and reliable historical studies.^[1]

Key Historical Elements

• Geography. Knowing that Israel lay between the Mediterranean and the desert informs the metaphors of “wilderness” and “sea.”
• Political setting. The Babylonian exile (6th c. BC) explains the prophetic emphasis on restoration.
• Social customs. Mosaic law reflects ancient Near Eastern covenant practices.

Methodological Tools

The hermeneutical triad—history, literature, theology—proposed by Köstenberger & Patterson (2021) provides a roadmap. Scholars first reconstruct the historical situation, then analyze literary form, and finally discern theological meaning within the whole canon.^[2]

Illustrative Example

Romans 1:20 says that God’s invisible qualities are evident in “the things that have been made.” A historical reading notes that Paul addressed a Greco‑Roman audience familiar with philosophical arguments about natural revelation. Recognizing that context clarifies why Paul emphasizes creation as a proof of God’s existence.

Integrating the Three Lenses

Step‑by‑Step Method

1. Determine the genre. This decides whether a literal or figurative reading is primary.
2. Establish the historical setting. Use biblical atlases, archaeological reports, and ancient Near Eastern literature.
3. Extract the literal meaning. Apply grammatical analysis and immediate context.
4. Identify figurative elements. Look for metaphors, typology, or apocalyptic symbolism.
5. Formulate the theological sense. Relate the passage to the full canon, respecting the literal and figurative findings.

This sequence mirrors the “historical‑literary‑theological” flow advocated by contemporary hermeneutical guides.^[2]

Balancing Literal and Figurative

Not every passage contains both senses. Narrative and law often remain primarily literal, while poetry and apocalyptic literature lean heavily on figurative language. The key is to let the genre dictate the weight of each lens.

Interpretive Differences Across Traditions

While the principles above enjoy broad scholarly consensus, Christian traditions apply them with varying emphasis:

• Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox. Both uphold the four senses of Scripture (literal, allegorical, moral, anagogical) and stress the continuity of typology and sacramental symbolism.
• Reformed and Evangelical. Emphasize the literal sense as the primary rule of faith, allowing figurative language only where the text clearly signals it.
• Apostolic/Oneness Pentecostal. As described in Understanding God’s Word, this tradition values a literal‑first approach but also affirms spiritual meanings when the Holy Spirit reveals them.^[4]

These differences illustrate why a disciplined method—grounded in history, grammar, and theology—helps avoid subjective or sectarian readings.

Synthesis and Practical Orientation

When the three lenses are applied together, the interpreter gains a fuller picture:

• The literal sense tells what the text says.
• The figurative sense reveals what the text points to beyond the words.
• The historical sense explains why the original audience would have heard those words in that way.

By respecting each, readers guard against two common errors: (1) taking symbolic language as a plain historical fact, and (2) stripping metaphorical language of its theological significance.

Next Steps for the Student of Scripture

1. Master Basic Grammar. Use a Hebrew or Greek interlinear and a reliable lexicon.

2. Consult a Bible Atlas. Visualizing ancient geography closes the “geography gap” noted by MacArthur.^[1]

3. Read a Hermeneutics Introduction. Andreas Köstenberger’s Invitation to Biblical Interpretation (2nd ed.) offers a concise, scholarly framework.^[2]

4. Practice with Paired Passages. Compare a literal narrative (e.g., Exodus 20) with a figurative Psalm (e.g., Psalm 23) and note how each method applies.

5. Join a Study Group. Discussing interpretations with others highlights diverse perspectives and refines one’s own conclusions.

Conclusion

The Bible is a multifaceted document that speaks both to its ancient audience and to readers today. A disciplined approach that honors the literal, figurative, and historical dimensions—guided by the hermeneutical triad of history, literature, and theology—provides the most faithful route to understanding God’s Word.