Short Answer
The Bible is not a single, universally fixed collection of books. While all major Christian traditions share the same 27 New Testament writings, the Old Testament (or Hebrew Scriptures) varies: Protestants use 39 books, Catholics 46, and Eastern Orthodox churches 50. These differences arise from divergent Jewish textual traditions, the early use of the Greek Septuagint, and the way each church defined the authority of Scripture.
What Is a Biblical Canon?
The term canon (from the Greek kanon, meaning “rule” or “measuring stick”) designates the list of books that a religious community recognises as divinely inspired and authoritative for doctrine and practice. A canon is therefore both a theological decision and a historical process, involving the collection, evaluation, and final ratification of texts.
Jewish Foundations: The Hebrew Bible and the Septuagint
Before Christianity, Jewish communities already distinguished between sacred writings and other literature. By the turn of the era, two textual traditions had crystallised:
- The Masoretic Text (MT) – a Hebrew‑language compilation standardised by Jewish scholars (the Masoretes) between the 7th and 10th centuries CE. It contains 24 books, organised in the three‑part Tanakh (Torah, Prophets, Writings).
- The Septuagint (LXX) – a Greek translation of Hebrew Scriptures made in Alexandria from the 3rd to 2nd centuries BCE. The LXX includes additional books, now called “deuterocanonical” by Catholics and “anagignoskomena” by Orthodox, that were part of the Jewish diaspora’s scriptural corpus.
Early Christians, many of whom spoke Greek, adopted the Septuagint as their Old Testament because it was the Scripture they could read and quote in worship. This early reliance on the LXX set the stage for later canonical differences.
Early Christian Use of Scripture
In the first centuries CE, Christian writers quoted both the Hebrew‑language texts and the Greek LXX. Evidence from citations in the New Testament, the letters of the Church Fathers, and early canon lists shows a fluid situation: communities recognised “core” books (the Pentateuch, Psalms, Isaiah, the Gospels, Paul’s letters) while other writings were still being evaluated.
Scholars such as Meade note that the early Christian “core canon overlapped with the Hebrew canon‑book repertoire, though not its Tanak structure”[3]. This overlap explains why all traditions agree on the New Testament but differ on the Old Testament.
The Old Testament Canon Across Traditions
Protestant Canon – 39 Books
During the Reformation, reformers like Martin Luther advocated a return to the Hebrew canon, arguing that the books of the Masoretic Text alone were the inspired Scriptures. Consequently, most Protestant churches adopt the 39‑book Old Testament that matches the Hebrew Bible.
Catholic Canon – 46 Books
The Catholic Church recognises the same 39 books as Protestants plus seven additional writings: Tobit, Judith, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, Wisdom, Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), and Baruch (including the Letter of Jeremiah). These are called the deuterocanonical books. The Council of Trent (1546) formally affirmed this 46‑book Old Testament in response to Protestant challenges.[1]
Orthodox Canon – 50 Books (and more)
Eastern Orthodox churches follow the Septuagint more closely, accepting up to 50 Old Testament books. In addition to the Catholic deuterocanonical books, they include 3 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, Psalm 151, and, in some traditions, the Prayer of Manasseh. These are termed anagignoskomena (books to be read). The Orthodox canon was solidified in synods such as the Council of Trullo (692) and later regional councils, which endorsed the LXX as the normative Old Testament.[1]
Summary of Numbers
| Tradition | Old Testament Books | Total Bible Books |
|---|---|---|
| Protestant | 39 | 66 |
| Catholic | 46 | 73 |
| Eastern Orthodox | 50 (varies slightly) | 77 (varies) |
The New Testament Canon – A Common Core
All major Christian traditions agree on a 27‑book New Testament. The path to this consensus involved several stages:
- Early Subcollections – By the mid‑2nd century, Christians circulated distinct groups such as the four Gospels, the Pauline epistles, and the Johannine writings.
- Criteria for Inclusion – Books were evaluated on apostolic authorship (or close connection), orthodoxy of teaching, and widespread liturgical use.
- Canonical Lists – The first complete list matching today’s New Testament appears in Athanasius’ Festal Letter (367 CE). Subsequent synods (Hippo 393, Carthage 397) echoed this list.[3]
- Council Confirmation – The Council of Trent (1546) and the Orthodox Synod of Jerusalem (1672) reaffirmed the same 27 books, cementing the universal New Testament canon.
Because the New Testament canon was largely settled by the 4th century, it remains uniform across traditions, unlike the Old Testament.
Key Councils, Synods, and Lists
Canonical formation was never a single event but a series of decisions:
- Athanasius (367 CE) – Provided the first extant list of 27 New Testament books.
- Synod of Hippo (393) & Council of Carthage (397) – African councils that affirmed the same New Testament list and accepted the 46‑book Catholic Old Testament.
- Council of Trent (1546) – Officially defined the Catholic canon, including the deuterocanonical books, responding to Protestant reform.
- Council of Trullo (692) and later Orthodox synods – Confirmed the Septuagint‑based Old Testament for the Eastern churches.
These gatherings illustrate how ecclesial authority, regional tradition, and theological concerns shaped the canon.
Why Do the Differences Persist?
Authority of the Septuagint vs. Masoretic Text
Protestants privilege the Hebrew Masoretic Text, viewing it as the original language of the Old Testament. Catholics and Orthodox retain the Septuagint because it was the Scripture of the early church and because it contains books they deem spiritually valuable.
Role of Church Tradition and Magisterial Authority
The Catholic and Orthodox churches consider the teaching authority (magisterium) of the church as a legitimate means of discerning the canon. The Reformation’s principle of sola scriptura (Scripture alone) led Protestants to limit the canon to books with clear Jewish origin.
Historical Momentum
Once a canon was ratified, it became entrenched in liturgy, catechisms, and biblical translation projects. Changing it would require overturning centuries of theological education and worship practice, which explains the stability of each tradition’s canon today.
Practical Implications for Readers
Understanding canonical differences helps readers:
- Choose a Bible translation that aligns with their tradition (e.g., the New Revised Standard Version for Protestants, the New American Bible for Catholics, the Orthodox Study Bible for Eastern churches).
- Interpret references to “the books of the Old Testament” in a way that respects the tradition’s canon.
- Appreciate why certain passages (e.g., the story of Susanna, the Prayer of Manasseh) appear in some Bibles but not others.
For theological study, it is useful to compare parallel passages in the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint to see how translation choices affect meaning.
Synthesis
The divergent Old Testament canons reflect the interplay of Jewish textual history, early Christian use of the Greek Scriptures, and later ecclesial decisions about authority. While the New Testament achieved a uniform 27‑book collection by the fourth century, the Old Testament remains threefold: 39 books for Protestants, 46 for Catholics, and up to 50 for Orthodox Christians. Recognising these historical and theological factors allows readers to navigate the Bible across traditions with greater insight.
FAQ
What are the deuterocanonical books?
The deuterocanonical books are seven writings accepted as part of the Old Testament by the Catholic Church (Tobit, Judith, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, Wisdom, Sirach, and Baruch). They are included in the Septuagint but are not part of the Hebrew Masoretic Text. Protestants label them “Apocrypha” and typically place them in a separate section or omit them.
Why do Protestants call these books “Apocrypha”?
During the Reformation, reformers argued that only the books of the Hebrew canon were divinely inspired. The term “Apocrypha” (Greek for “hidden”) was used to denote books that were useful for instruction but not canonical for establishing doctrine.
How was the New Testament canon decided?
Early Christians circulated collections of Gospels and Pauline letters. By the 2nd century, criteria such as apostolic authorship, doctrinal consistency, and widespread liturgical use guided acceptance. Lists like Athanasius’ 367 CE Festal Letter and the Councils of Hippo and Carthage (late 4th century) fixed the 27‑book New Testament, a list later affirmed by both Catholic and Orthodox councils.
Do the differing Old Testament canons affect core Christian doctrines?
The core doctrines of Christianity—such as the nature of Christ, salvation, and the Trinity—are derived from the 27 New Testament books, which all traditions share. Differences in the Old Testament affect secondary matters (e.g., liturgical readings, devotional material) but not the essential theological foundations.
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